The Victorian Age in Literature Essay Example for Free

The Victorian Age in Literature Essay The Victorian Age is roughly delimited by the reign of Queen Victoria, who ascended the throne of Great Britain on 1937, and died in 1901. For the sake of convenience the Victorian age of literature is bracketed by the period 1830 to 1901. Both in terms of literature and culture the Victorian period is highly distinctive. For such a characteristic period to correspond to the reign of a monarch, and considering the inordinate length of it, suggests somehow that the character of the monarch has left its imprint therein. But this is very far from being the case. In theory Britain was a constitutional monarchy, which meant that the queen was supreme ruler, and was aided by an executive arm, which was a Parliament that is democratically elected. This was, however, only on paper. In practice the bourgeoisie were entrenched in the Parliament and ruled the land as an oligarchy. The entrenchment of the middle classes in England was a process begun with the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215, in which the nobles wrenched significant powers from the crown, then in the form of the unpopular King John. Both the nobles and the crown, however, met a new challenge in the form of the merchant and middle classes after the Protestant Reformation, which was the basis of the English Civil War, fought in the seventeenth century. The result of this war was a monarchy thoroughly emasculated and in the hands of the bourgeoisie, who began to appoint their kings from abroad, beginning with William of Orange, from Holland, who ascended the British throne as William III in the â€Å"Glorious Revolution† of 1688. In 1714 George Louis, Elector of Hanover, was invited to sit on the British throne, which began the long lineage of the House of Hanover, of which Queen Victoria was descended. In this wise the queen was barely English, and had hardly any inclination to become one, evidenced by the links continued to be held with the continent. She became merely a sentimentalized figurehead, as Britain forged ahead, during her reign, to become the economic and imperial power of world. She was ultimately conferred the title of Empress of India, at the time when India was the Jewel in the Crown of a world empire. But she identified little with the aspirations of the age that she labeled. The emancipation of woman was a central tenet of Victorianism, which she opposed vehemently. She called it â€Å"mad, wicked folly†, and thought that these ladies â€Å"ought to get a good whipping† (qtd. in Strachey 409). The advance of capitalism and the Industrial Revolution forms the backdrop to the Victorian age. The prelude to this was the rise of science and rationalism at the expense of faith. The Enlightenment is the name given to this movement in the initial phase, especially in relation to the conscious intellectual movement in this direction inspired by the likes of Bayle and Voltaire in France. It venerated reason, the experimental method of Bacon, the mechanics of Newton, and the ideals of the Classical world of ancient Rome and Greece. This movement eventually bred a reaction in Germany, through the likes of Herder, Schiller and Goethe, who emphasized passion and spontaneity, as against cold reason. The movement came to be labeled Romanticism, and found a vigorous growth on English soil too through Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley, Keats and others. Many have characterized the Victorian ethos as a compromise between these two extremes, and found expression in a philosophy known as Utilitarianism. Jeremy Bentham and James Mill were the advocates of this philosophy. Bentham coined the motto â€Å"the greatest good of the greatest number† to encapsulate the philosophy (qtd. in Parekh 62). It is what Chesterton describes as the â€Å"great Victorian compromise†. But Victorian literature, as a whole, is not a reflection of Utilitarianism, but is rather a protest against it. Chesterton compares such a protest with the popular uprising of the French Revolution. If the stifling effects of science and industry caused the people to revolt in France, in Britain it was the poets and wordsmiths who did so. In fact this was the only avenue of protest left open in Britain, where the captains of industry has already seized all other social institutions, which is the very reason why the Industrial Revolution took place in Britain and not anywhere else. The â€Å"enclosures† had taken land away from the people, leaving them just as powerless as the queen on her throne. Industry herded them into the cities and made them captive to Smith’s â€Å"division of labor†. Literature was the means to revolution, according to Chesterton, on which he elaborates: This trend of the English Romantics to carry out the revolutionary idea not savagely in works, but very wildly indeed in words, had several results; the most important of which was this. It started English literature after the Revolution with a sort of bent towards independence and eccentricity, which in the brighter wits became individuality, and in the duller ones, Individualism. (5) In this way the revolution is said to have succeeded, because it was able to mould the modern character so that it is able to deal with modernity. This is a triumph not to be belittled, and so, continues Chesterton, â€Å"Verbally considered, Carlyles French Revolution was more revolutionary than the real French Revolution† (Ibid). EARLY PERIOD (1830-1848) Though coming well before the Victorian period, the novels of Jane Austen must be considered as a beginning, and a forerunner to proper Victorian literature. They seem to be merely unassuming domestic dramas, written from the very limited perspective of a provincial lady. In fact, Jane Austen had very little experience of life beyond the confines of rural England, and her works are unencumbered by the great philosophies that were then vying with each other for the domination of the world. She was neither a rationalist, nor a Romanticist. For her heroines, life’s one concern is to secure a good match, one that combines a good income with social esteem. The overriding message of her novels seems to be that to obtain the ideal match the woman must possess both sense and sensibility, i. e. both reason and passion. In fact, Sense and Sensibility is the title of her first novel, establishing her mode. As such we are able to identify it as a precursor to the Victorian compromise. This is not to call her heroines Utilitarian, in the sense of being scheming social climbers. Austen’s novels must be seen as celebration of domestic life, as standing opposed to the insidious infiltration of ideas, in which sense both the rationalists and the Romanticists are guilty. Such a resistance to rational frameworks characterizes nearly all of Victorian literature, and Oscar Wilde and the Aesthetes were still engaged in the same towards the end of the Victorian period. From another point of view, it is the imposition of the woman’s perspective into a world that is otherwise overburdened with the male. Austen must also be credited with inventing the modern novel, which Chesterton describes as a â€Å"feminine art†, and the function of which is to distinguish character, rather than tell a story (39). All the great Victorian novelists follow Austen in this sense. Thomas Babbington Macaulay is another writer who cannot be left out in any consideration of Victorian literature, even though he clearly comes before. He is the true prophet of progress, and thus the harbinger of the Victorian ethos. As a historian the overriding task of Macaulay is to delineate â€Å"progress†. He tackles history with an overwhelming bias towards the Whiggish faction, the party that upheld the liberal tradition and allied itself to the moneyed middle classes. He upheld Bentham’s Utilitarianism, but was by no means cold and calculating. Instead he promoted a vision that is broad, captivating and awe-inspiring. He is the undeniable single influence behind Victorian literature, even though not all his influence was wholesome. Of him Chesterton says: The chief tragedy in the trend of later literature may be expressed by saying that the smaller Macaulay conquered the larger. Later men had less and less of that hot love of history he had inherited from Scott. They had more and more of that cold science of self-interests which he had learnt from Bentham. (12) Those who practiced the hard school of science, and advocated Utilitarianism, were usually beyond the fray of literature. The leading light among them, John Stuart Mill, was an exception among them, however. He championed Smithsonian economics, and attempted to provide polish to the philosophy of Utilitarianism, yet he did so as an artist, and with profound common sense. His father was one of the founders of Utilitarianism, and Bentham was his godfather. He was educated at home under his father’s punishing regime, one that was cause of a near breakdown of the youthful Mill. It was meant that he imbibe as much classical and scientific education as possible, and Bentham was also instrumental towards this end. Mill, however, survived and went on to redefine the philosophy of Utilitarianism in a more human way. It was the wont of the Utilitarians to circumvent the truism that the freedom of one comes in the way of that of the other. If they did consider it, it was only in the larger numbers, along the principle of â€Å"the greatest good of the greatest number†. But, in his seminal essay â€Å"On Liberty†, Mill advanced the â€Å"harm principle†, in which the act of liberty is said to be virtuous only when there is no immediate harem discernable to the next: The only part of the conduct of anyone, for which he is amenable to society, is that which concerns others. In the part which merely concerns himself, his independence is, of right, absolute. Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign. (28) The philosophy of Mill was suspect. Nevertheless, he is heartfelt and genuine, and therefore he succeeds as a writer, and his works succeed as literature, which was highly influential in taming the hard edges of Utilitarianism. He meant it that the philosophy be not cold-headed, but warm-hearted. He points out that there is a difference between ‘happiness’ and ‘contentment’, and that Bentham confused the latter with the former. One may be content with numbers, but not happy with a guilty conscience. It is happiness that is to be sought, and cannot be had with numbers. So he says: It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, are a different opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question. (Mill, Utilitarianism, 281) Many commentators tend to classify Thomas Carlyle as a Romanticist, and indeed his introduction to the world of letters is through his translations of Goethe, whose Romantic ideals he championed. But Carlyle will be found to be eminently Victorian, and should indeed serve as the ideal representative of Victorianism in its early phase. The most marked characteristic of a Victorian author is that he knows instinctively something to be wrong, and gives vent to this mood in his writing. It is a remark that wholly applies to Carlyle. He is never as logical as Goethe and the Romantics. He does not insist on passion, he is merely passionate. The things that he is passionate about are derived, as if, from the sixth sense. He was impatient of all forms of speculation. â€Å"Our grand business undoubtedly is, not to see what lies dimly at a distance,† he says, â€Å"but to do what lies clearly at hand† (Carlyle, Critical, 462). He distrusts history in any form whatsoever, which might seem hypocritical seeing that his major works are predominantly history. But reading the French Revolution does not give us the impression of having read history. It is narrated as if the events were in the present, and we are supposed to be moved as if the revolution is happening, not as a report of a past occurrence. He had no rapport with the mob: â€Å"Democracy is, by the nature of it, a self-canceling business; and it gives in the long run a net result of zero† (Carlyle, Chartism, 33). Neither the mob, nor the ossified â€Å"isms† of the philosophers partake in history. Instead it is the heroic individual, moved by the immediacy of duty, who is the real author of history. â€Å"The history of the world is but the biography of great men,† he avers in On Heroes and Hero Worship (29).

Education: Banking or Problem Posing? Essay -- essays research papers

Education: Banking or Problem Posing? Richard Rodriguez and Paolo Freire write of education as the core factor in one’s life. They feel that education itself lends people to either â€Å"achieve† greatness or fall into the majority of â€Å"bankers.† â€Å"The Achievement of Desire† by Rodriguez and â€Å"The Banking Concept of Education† by Freire greatly resemble each other; however, they also differ on some points. Despite their differences, both texts come to the same conclusion – education makes a person who he/she can become. Rodriguez and Freire both state that education is vital for success. Rodriguez writes that he is the way he is because of his education. Rodriguez came from a working class Mexican family. When he was introduced to education, he became ashamed of this and chose to change his path from falling into the same social status. Rodriguez is known as he is today because of his ability to step back; out of the present situation or environment and reflect on it almost immediately. Rodriguez agrees that banking does nothing to better education or society itself. If no new ideas are ever surfaced, then progress will never occur. He was the same as everyone else until he started to analyze texts and paraphrase more than just summarize. This made him the â€Å"scholarship boy† that he was. By learning to use his education wisely and make connections between different texts, he heightened his intelligence. A key element that Rodriguez and Freire both speak of is banking education. Fre...

Macbeth Analysis Essay

The extract before me is from Macbeth written by William Shakespeare in the year 1606. It is from Act 1 Sc 7. It takes place in a room at Macbeth’s castle at Inverness. The extract primarily deals with the ploys that Lady Macbeth uses to persuade her husband Macbeth to commit the crime of murdering King Duncan. Two important themes are bought out in this extract, one is about the creation of gender roles and stereotypes and the second one is about appearances often being deceptive. The extract begins with Macbeth telling Lady Macbeth â€Å"We shall proceed no further in this business†. This is obviously referring to something which has happened before in the scene. Macbeth has been contemplating the consequences of this murder. He conceives a very apocalyptic vision of how the angels of heaven are gonna be coming and spreading the news of this murder all across. The angels are gonna be pleading for Duncan’s virtues and the people are gonna be actually crying and there be like a flood of tears which will drown the Earth. So, he tells Lady Macbeth that he does not wish to do away with his golden reputation, he does not want to lose its gloss and therefore, he does not want to proceed with the bloody business as he calls it. Lady Macbeth is obviously very affected by this and she ends up trying to accuse Macbeth of being unmanly. She uses adjectives like â€Å"pale†, â€Å"green†. She compares him to â€Å"the poor cat in the adage†. She is trying to drive the wedge between him and his doing and his desire to achieve the throne and his lack of action. Now, Lady Macbeth says, â€Å"what beast was it then that made you break this enterprise to me†. This is a reference to Act 1, Sc 5 because in Act 1 Sc 5, Macbeth tells Lady Macbeth about the prophecies that the witches had made and how he is supposed to become t he King of Scotland after becoming the Thane of Cawdor. Now, Lady Macbeth is just wedging upon those lines saying that â€Å"when you dared to commit this to me, that is when you were a man† and now if you are actually gonna commit the deed of murder, you are gonna commit the heinous crime of regicide, you will be even more the man. Lady Macbeth reasons out that the time and the place were not appropriate to kill Duncan at that time but now since he has come into our battlements, he is in our castle as our guest, we are supposed to kill him. Lady Macbeth is surprised that Macbeth is losing his resolve at this time. Lady Macbeth goes on to create a very grotesque image that shows that the milk of human kindness is actually not present in her. She says that she has suckled the baby at her breast and she knows â€Å"how tender it is to love the babe that milks me† and she says that if she had ever said that she had committed to anyone that I am going to be killing my child, she would have actually plucked his mouth out of her nipple and dashed his brains out against the wall. This is a very grotesque image produced by Lady Macbeth has produced. This makes it clear to us that Lady Macbeth has been dehumanised, defeminised in all ways. Thus, she has achieved her wish which she asked from the spirits. She is totally unwomanly and does not have any maternal instincts. She is actually a reminder of the character Medea from the play Medea written by Euripedes because Medea had self-decided to kill her own children. Now, we see that the scene has become progressively darker with Lady Macbeth creating images of death and Macbeth ends up contemplating the possible consequences if we should fail. We should see that there are several times when Macbeth and Lady Macbeth talk about each other as being one. They perpetually use ‘we’. Macbeth has never said that ‘i’ am gonna fail at the murder. He says that ‘we’ should fail. This shows that there is a sense of togetherness and they are partners not only in greatness but also in crime. So, Lady Macbeth immediately retaliates but then at this time there is a shift in tone. It becomes much more pragmatic because she divulges the plan of the murder to Macbeth. There is a metaphor used over here, it’s about stringed instruments, now just as you take the string and you create the appropriate tension by tying it to the right peg. Similarly, Lady Macbeth expects that Macbeth decides to be headstrong and resolute and decides to screw his courage to the sticking place. If he does so, they will certainly not fail. She goes on to discuss the plan of murder with Macbeth. She says that when Duncan will be asleep and in all probability, he is likely to sleep due to his long journey. The two sentinels outside his room are gonna be intoxicated by Lady Macbeth using wine, drugs. She will make sure that they are so drunk that they will lose thier memory which has been described as â€Å"the warder of the brain†. The receipt of reason will not be there. Reason will actually be distilled out of their brains. They will not be able to understand anything. They will actually behave like swine and sleeping in that manner. Lady Macbeth sees it as golden opportunity to perform the murder. She once again, as I said, talks about them being one. She says â€Å"what cannot you and I perform upon the unguarded Duncan?† when in fact the murder is going to be committed by Macbeth alone. Lady Macbeth is obviously very important partner in his crime. Now, Lady Macbeth further tells him that they are gonna be taking the daggers and staining the officers with the blood. She expects the officers â€Å"to bear the guilt of our great quell. Now, the use of the word â€Å"guilt† over here is very important and it is also very ironic because it is not like they do not do away with thier guilt ever. In fact, they leave in torment of the very murder. Lady Macbeth in Act 5, Sc 1 in the sleep-walking soliloquy is a woman who has completely lost her senses. She is leaving under intense emotional pressure and she is the one who is not able to sleep anymore. So, it shows that they are actually guilty of the crime. Macbeth himself in Act 2 Sc 2 does not wish to even go back to the scene of the crime again. So, it shows that even though they are gonna be staining the sentinels with blood. In fact, both of them are gonna be living in horror of the deed. Now, Macbeth seems to be quite convinced and he asks Lady Macbeth to bring forward male children only because the â€Å"undaunted mettle should compose nothing but males†. Now, this is very significant because it is about the creation of the gender stereotypes. In the Shakespearean area, it was expected of men to be embodiment of valour, courage and ruthlessness to some extent and woman on the other hand were expected to be more submissive and incapable of coming up with wicked plans. However Lady Macbeth is an exception to this rule because she comes across as one who is so resolute and cold, so devoid of pity that this is something which should be there only in men. Macbeth once again questions his wife and asks her that if they are gonna marking the two sleepy sentinels with blood, would it not see that they have done it. Lady Macbeth says that while they will be hysterically crying and lamenting the death of Duncan, suspicion will never fall upon them. Macbeth finally capitulates to all its wife’s persuasions and he seems to have â€Å"bend up each corporal agent to this terrible feat†. This is a very important line in the building up of the tragic hero because Macbeth is gonna be himself responsible for his fate. He has decided to put his heart and soul into committing so heinous a crime and he is indeed gonna be bearing indeed the consequences of it as we see later in the play. The scene ends with a couplete that rhymes which is typical of Shakespeare. It says that â€Å"Away, and mock the time with fairest show: false face must hide what the false heart doth know. So, it recounts the theme that appearances are often deceptive. This theme has been running throughout the play. It all began with King Duncan in Act 1 Sc 2 when he wished that he would be able to recognise people by simply looking at their faces. It is also present in Act 1 Sc 5 when Lady Macbeth asks her husband to â€Å"look like the innocent flower but be the serpent under it†. This time Macbeth is the one who is actually telling his wife that she is suppose to be having composure, she is suppose to conceal her ulterior motives and her false face must hide the real intentions that she has. In conclusion, i can say that there is a big contrast between the characters of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. Macbeth is the one who is contemplating the fear of failure. He says that we should fail, what would happen. He is no doubt ambitious but at the same time he also comes across as a rational being.

Counseling Services For A Counselor - 1565 Words

Individual Assignment 1. There are times a counselor might need to decline to provide counseling services to some clients/students who request them. a) In what circumstances might this be appropriate and ethical and how should that process be handled by the counselor? b) When would it be unethical for a counselor to decline to provide services? Support each response with a minimum of 3 relevant ACA and/or ASCA codes and the textbook. a) There are several times that a counselor might need to decline to provide counseling services. If a counselor is not competent in a specific area, has determined distance counseling is ineffective, and/or has been engaged in a previous sexual or romantic relationship with an individual counselors should not engage in, or continue, counseling services. Counselors also should not enter into counseling relationships with friends or family. ACA A.11.a Competence Within Termination and Referral If counselors lack the competence to be of professional assistance to clients, they avoid entering or continuing counseling relationships. Counselors are knowledgeable about culturally and clinically appropriate referral resources and suggest these alternatives. If clients decline the suggested referrals, counselors discontinue the relationship. ACA H.4.d. Effectiveness of Services When distance counseling services are deemed ineffective by the counselor or client, counselors consider delivering services face-to-face. If the counselor is not able toShow MoreRelatedCounseling993 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction to Counseling Written Assignment # 1 I. What is professional counseling? Discuss the most recent trends in counseling. Professional counseling is a service provided voluntary and confidential with the focus on the developmental, situational problems of individuals of all ages and culture. Professional counselors help individuals to make decisions and resolve conflicts. Counselors provide service on different settings like the workplace, schools, colleges and other placesRead MoreThe Origins Of Clinical Mental Health Counseling1458 Words   |  6 PagesThe profession of counseling has a rich and bold history, evolving through the years from varied disciplines and birthing diverse specialties and branches along the way. Often referred to as the youngest of the counseling specialties is clinical mental health counseling. Despite physical health’s grasp on the nation, mental health has been a major focus at various times throughout history and continues to become an ever growing concern for people in general. As people come to better understand mentalRead MorePrimary Functions Of The Professi onal School Counselor846 Words   |  4 PagesWhat are the primary functions of the professional school counselor? Functions of the school counselor have changed throughout the decades (Dollarhide Saginak, 2012). To support the current school reform movement, school counselors focus on standards that students should be able to accomplish because of their participation in a school counseling program (Wilkerson, 2010). It is suggested that these standards help to support students’ ability to be ready to learn (Wilkerson, 2010). Through theRead MoreCode Of Ethics And State Board Counseling Laws920 Words   |  4 Pages Professional counselors and their staff are exposed to sensitive client information and records. The helpful receptionist and whose privilege videos, show how to apply both the American Counseling Association Code of Ethics (ACA Code of Ethics) and state board counseling laws to common ethical scenarios. The content explores aspects designed to call attention to favorable and unfavorable skills and techniques in handling such matters. These two videos demonstrate the limitati ons of confidentialityRead MoreExploring Ethical Codes and Possible Ethical Issues in Responding Therapy Clients through E-Mail921 Words   |  4 Pagesfound responding to clients via email as â€Å"high quality service†, I believe that responding via email could become controversial while discussing therapeutic issues. There are several ethical codes that address the use of electronics. While using electronics one must inform the client of the limitations, and risks. In Section H of the ACA Code of Ethics booklet, the H.4.a. Benefits and Limitations section (p. 18) reads, â€Å"Counselors inform clients of the benefits and limitations of usingRead MoreEthics And Code Of Ethics1359 Words   |  6 Pagesethics will individualize these professionals and set standards. By making yourself aware of the differences, communication can become easier between employees of various backgrounds. Two particular organizations to compare may include the American Counseling Association Code of Ethics and National Association of Social Workers Code of Ethics. To address the similarities and differences of the two organizations, it’s important to know what a code of ethics represents. An overall mission of an organizationRead MoreCode of Ethics Essay1288 Words   |  6 Pagesof the organizations, specifically the client, counselor, and organization. Concerning the standards of a counselor, their ethics are not only provided by the laws of the state or their practice, but also outside sources who present basic values and regulations of ethical standards in their code of ethics. This paper will look at two specific associations: the American Counseling Association (ACA) and the American Association of Christian Counselors (AACC). The purpose of this paper is to discussRead MoreSchool Counselor1707 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction â€Å"Counselors assist people with personal, family, educational, mental health, and career decisions and problems† (â€Å"Counselors† 1). â€Å"While helping students plan for college and careers is part of their job, a guidance counselor’s overall function is to talk to students, give advice, listen to problems, help students develop coping skills and learn to become good problem-solvers and decision-makers on their own† (â€Å"Guidance Counselors†). Specifically, school counselors play a major roleRead MoreComponents Of The Asca National Model860 Words   |  4 PagesAccording to the American School Counseling Association (ASCA), the â€Å"purpose of the school counseling program is to impart specific skills and learning opportunities in a proactive, preventive manner, ensuring all students can achieve school success through academic, career, and personal/social development experiences† (Oberman Studer, 2011, p. 1). The ASCA National Mo del is used by school counselors to show devotion to student success (ASCA, n.d.-c, p. 1). The four components of the ASCA NationalRead MoreCounseling: Helping Clients Find Solutions Essay1345 Words   |  6 PagesCounseling can be viewed as relationship between two individuals, a counselor and a client, with the aim of helping the client overcome a problem or reduce adversary/suffering .In this relationship, the assumption is that the client is in a problem and needs assistance, while the counselor is experienced and possesses unconditional positive regard to the client (Colin J. S Graham U. 1994).Therefore, counseling may also be regarded as a helping profession because it aims at helping the clients deal